Study on the A Not B Error

Study on the A Not B Error After being discovered by Jean Piaget in 1954 perseveration tasks became one of the main means of investigation in cognitive development psychology, initially in children and later also in non-human animals. The most known of these is the, so called, A-not-B task, which even after many years of research still elicits debates about its underlying mechanisms. This paper aims to provide a review of existing empirical data in order to answer questions of who and why makes the A-not-B error. The first section of the review will give a theoretical background by describing the classic task used by Piaget, the importance of such experiments. This will provide a clear picture of what the A-not-B error is. The two following parts will focus on the questions of who makes the error and why, by an analysis of a set of classic experiments. Each study will be analyzed in terms of its goals, results, and what the impact of these findings is. The last part will include general conclusions based on st udies analyses from previous parts. In order to answer the questions stated in the review title, what is the A-not-B error, who makes it, and why?, classic data will be analyzed in order to determine what the best candidates for explanation of the mechanisms responsible for the error are (in the classic A-not-B task). The most convincing hypothesis will be chosen based on its explanatory power (can it explain most of the existing data?) and its relation to other approaches (can it incorporate other ideas?). Publication of the book The Construction of Reality in the Child in 1954 marks the beginning of research on perseverative tasks in infants. The author, Jean Piaget, described many hide and seek games, invented in order to investigate the understanding of permanence of objects in infants and its changes in time. One of these games became one of the most widely used to explore infant cognition, the A-not-B task. The classic example of its procedure involved a 9 and a half month old child called Laurent. Piaget placed him on a sofa and presented him with two hiding covers, one on the right, and one on the left. Then, he placed his watch under the cover A, and observed Laurent lift the cover to retrieve the watch. After this hiding and seeking was repeated several times, Piaget hid his watch under the cover B. Laurent watched this action attentively, but when given a choice searched back at the location A. As the author put it, at the moment the watch has disappeared under the garment B, he [Laurent] turns back toward coverlet A, and searches for the object under the screen. From this wrong choice, Piaget concluded that Laurent did not understand the independence of objects from his own actions on them. Since these initial results, the A-not-B error has been continuously studied and proven to be a strong and universal phenomenon in human infancy. However, the underlying mechanisms are still being debated, why the error happens and what it means. What is clearer, are the crucial elements of the task to produce the A-not-B error (Smith, 1999). In the original procedure an infant sits in front of two hiding locations that are highly similar and separated by a small distance. While the infant watches, an attractive object (for example a toy) is hidden in one of the locations, described as A. After a delay (which can vary), the infant is allowed to search for the object by reaching to one of the two hiding locations. This hiding and seeking is repeated several times, af ter which the object is hidden again, but this time in location B. Again, after a delay the infant searches for the object. In this traditional method, 8 to 10 month old infants keep reaching back to the initial location A, thus making the A-not-B error. More recent data suggests that there might be also other important elements of the experiment, including posture of an infant, social context, or who the person interacting with subjects is. Before proceeding to a more detailed analysis of existing A-not-B task data, the significance of such research will be briefly described. Investigations of A-not-B task are important for a couple of reasons. Firstly, it provides a clear paradigm to explore the development of infant cognition, how it changes in time. More specifically, it allows investigation how different processes involved in finding the object interact (such as looking, discriminating locations, posture control, and motor planning). Secondly, it also allows comparative experiments when the task is administered to nonhuman animals. Such research allow comparisons of cognitive abilities of different species and how these abilities might have evolved from common ancestors. However, after many years of research there is still no consensus on what is the meaning of the error and what its developmental importance is. The question of what the A-not-B error is has already been answered. The next question is about who makes the error. An answer to this question will be approached by analyzing a selection of studies on the A-not-B tasks which investigated human infants (Homo sapiens), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). The predominant group of participants checked on the A-not-B task are human infants of different ages. Diamond and Goldman-Rakic (1989) investigated extensively how the age of infants and the length of delay between observing and searching influences the commitment rate of the error. The experimental procedure was based on the original task, designed by Piaget. However, several differences were also introduced. Instead of sitting freely, infants were held sitting on their parents lap, prevented from turning or looking at the hiding location during the delay. Care was taken to ensure that the infant was observing the whole hiding process. In order to prevent visual fixation on correct hiding location, the infants were distracted by the experimenter calling them and counting aloud. Correct reaches were rewarded by gaining the hidden object (an attractive toy). In a case of an incorrect reach, the experimenter showed the right choice by uncovering the object, but did not allow the infan t to reach for it. Testing for A-not-B began immediately after the infant first uncovered a hidden toy from one of the hiding places. Different lengths of delays between hiding and searching were introduced to the procedure to check what the crucial time to commit the error was. The first introduced delay was a 2 second one. Most infants below 8-8.5 months of age made the A-not-B error at these or smaller delays, whereas only one infant above 11 months did so. The second delay was 5 seconds. By 8.5 months only half of infants made the error at delays of 5 +/- 2 seconds. By 9.5 months half of the infants required delays greater than 5 seconds for the error to appear. The last experimental delay was 10 seconds, where no infant below 8.5 months had passed, whereas by 12 months the average delay needed to be longer than 10 seconds. An interesting observation from this experiment is that infants who maintained visual fixation on the correct hiding location also reached correctly, while t hose who shifted their gaze, failed to do so (performed at chance levels). Another interesting fact is that infants tried to correct themselves when they made the A-not-B error (but not in the youngest ages). To sum up, the A-not-B error occurs in human infants at delays of 2-5 seconds at 7.5-9 months, and at delays greater than 10 seconds after one year. These findings also are consistent with studies conducted by Gratch and Landers (1971) and Fox et al. (1979) which both found that infants of 8 months made the error at a delay of 3 seconds, as well as with a study by Millar and Watson (1979) which showed that infants of 6-8 months could avoid the error when there was no delay, but committed it with delays as brief as 3 seconds. This last finding corresponds closely with Diamond and Goldman-Rakic who found that infants of 8 months will succeed on A-not-B task if there is no delay, but that they will also fail at delays of 3 seconds. Diamond and Goldman-Rakic used the same procedure to investigate ten rhesus monkeys with prefrontal lesions in comparison to monkeys with different brain lesions (parential), and ones with brains intact. Only animals with the prefrontal lesions committed the A-not-B errors at different delay lengths. There was no significant difference in performance between unoperated and parentially lesioned monkeys. Their age ranged from 2 to 6 years. At the delay of 2 seconds, all monkeys with prefrontal lesions committed the error. At the delay level of 5 second results were similar, all monkeys with prefrontal lesions committed the error. At the delay of 10 seconds the performance of prefrontal animals did not meet criteria for the error (such as at least one error in the reversed trial, the error at least once repeated during the same trial), exactly like human infants below 9 months. Behaviour of prefrontally damaged monkeys was noted to be very similar to that of human infants described befo re. The last research analyzed in order to provide an answer to the question of who commits the A-not-B error was conducted by Topà ¡l et al. (2009) on dogs, wolves, and human infants. In a series of experiments a behavioural analogy between human infants and dogs was found. The goal of the research was to investigate the functional nature of dogs sensitivity to communicative cues in a comparative framework, by the use of the A-not-B task. In one of the experiments dogs were shown to be influenced by the communicative context in their perseverative erroneous searches for hidden objects at a previously repeatedly baited (with a toy) location A, even when they observed the object being hidden at a different location (B). Such results are highly similar to those found in human infants. The task involved looking for a hidden object that the dogs saw being hidden behind one of two identical screens. The first phase consisted of the dog being allowed to repeatedly fetch the object (toy) from behind of the screens (location A). In the test phase, the experimenter hid the toy behind the alternative screen B. Dogs managed to fetch the hidden object correctly in all screen A trials. The main result from the test phase is that dogs in the social-communicative trial (the hider attracted the dogs attention) committed the A-not-B error more often than animals in the non-communicative (hiding with experimenters back turned toward the dog) or non-social (experimenter stayed still while the object was moved between screen by another experimenter, not visible to the dog) version. Additionally, animals in the non-social condition were significantly more successful than chance during the test phases. To sum up, the error was eliminated when the hiding events were not accompanied by communicative signals from experimenters. Dogs were shown to be influenced by the communicative context in their perseverative erroneous searches for hidden objects at the previously repeatedly baited loca tion A, even when they observed the object being hidden at a different location B. Such results are highly similar to those found in human infants. Thus, the A-not-B error was proven to also exist in dogs. Naturally this analysis does not exhaust all existing research on perseverative tasks. However, the aim of this review is to focus on A-not-B error only, in its classic version designed by Piaget. Other species, investigated in different variants of perseverative error tasks, included chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), cotton-top tamarin monkeys (Saguinus oedipus) (Hauser, 1999), as well as magpies (Pica pica) (Gà ³mez, 2005). After the data of who makes the A-not-B error was summarized, an analysis of the underlying mechanisms should follow, to answer the question of why the error is made. In literature different hypotheses are present. Principal of these include areas such as object permanence, memory deficits, information bias, immaturity of prefrontal cortex, and action oriented responses (reaching). The first explanation was provided by the author of the A-not-B task himself, based on his initial research on perseverative errors. Piaget attributed this error to a lack of conception of object permanence in human infants. In his view infants commit the error because they do not understand that an object continues to exist even when out of sight. Their reach back to location A is therefore seen as an attempt to bring that object back to existence. This is the first, historical explanation, which has been disproved by various studies. For example, Baillargeon (1987) has shown that some young infants (3.5-4.5 months) might have some understanding of object permanence. When watching possible (a screen rotating and stopping at a box behind it) and impossible events (a screen rotating as though there was no box behind it), infants looked longer at the impossible ones, which can be understood that they were not expecting them to happen. Similar results were also reported by Ahmed and Ruf fman (1998), where infants who made the A-not-B error in search tasks looked significantly longer at impossible events than possible ones in a non-search version of the task. Such behaviours required a comprehension that when objects are out of sight, they continue to exist. Infants did not expect the object to be retrieved from a wrong place and therefore they had to understand in some sense where the object was actually located. Such results call into question Piagets claims about the age at which object permanence emerges. An alternative explanation focused on memory as a factor responsible for the error occurrence. In her research, Diamond (1985) found that different delay lengths between hiding and object searching affected the rate of the error. Thus the conclusion was that the recall memory was causing the A-not-B error. However, such view was challenged by Butterworth (1977), who found that use of transparent covers in hiding locations does not decrease the error rates, which is inconsistent with the recall hypothesis. Seeing an object underneath a cover should create no need of using the recall memory and lead to the error not being committed, which did not happen. This study also can be used to argue against the hypothesis that competition between different kinds of memory is responsible for the error. Harris (1989; after: Ahmed Ruffman, 1998) proposed that infants make the A-not-B error because of two memory traces in combination with poor attention. In this view, information about the object at location A is held in the long-term memory, whereas information about the object at new location B is kept in a weaker short-term memory. However, the fact that infants continue to make the error even when provided with clear cues of the object location (transparent covers), suggests that the underlying cause is not related to memory issues. Another classic explanation placed the difficulty on the encoding of information. Bjork and Cummings (1984) suggested that encoding at new location B requires more processing (is more complex) than encoding repeated location A because B must be distinguished from A. Sophian and Wellman (1983) also referred to information selection, where prior information was mistakenly selected over the new information about location B because infants forgot current information (which relates strongly to the short-term memory limitations) or because infants did not know that current information should take over. These findings again can be debated in light of the transparent covers study by Butterworth (1977) and the violation-of-expectations study by Ahmed and Ruffman (1998). With the use of transparent covers, encoding new information does not pose major cognitive challenge since the desired object is visible all the time. The proposition of infants not knowing which information should precede is enough ambiguous in itself (what know means in this context, do adults know which information from their environment should be the most valid one?) and is additionally contradicted by the findings that infants look longer at unexpected retrieval of objects from old locations. Therefore, they behave as though they know where the object is currently hidden. All of the hitherto presented hypotheses have met their nemesis data. At this point, two major explanations of the A-not-B error will be presented that yielded wider acceptance. One of them, supported by neuropsychological literature, is the importance of the prefrontal cortex, especially its relation with perseveration and inhibition. The prefrontal cortex is an anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, which is often associated with planning behaviours, decision making, and moderating social behaviour. As Hauser (1999) states it, the act of perseveration (a repeated production of particular action or thought) often represents the consequence of a particular cognitive problem, related to inhibition. In order to prevent perseveration such mechanism is required to reject some alternatives while favouring others, which may involve activation of the prefrontal cortex (Kimberg et al., 1997). Infants, therefore, are highly susceptible to the commitment of the A-not-B error because of their immature prefrontal cortex. The research by Diamond and Goldman-Rakic (1989) provided the first evidence that A-not-B performance depends upon the integrity of the prefrontal cortex and that maturation of this region underlies improvements in the task performance in human infants between 7.5 and 12 months of age. Further support comes from other groups of subjects of this study. Monkeys with lesions in the prefrontal cortex also committed the error, whereas monkeys with brains left intact, managed to choose the correct location B. As the authors noticed, the A-not-B task performance of operated monkeys and 7.5-9 month old human infants was highly comparable (both groups made errors at delays of 2-5 seconds). This significance of the prefrontal cortex can be explained by analyzing two main abilities required for the error to occur, which depend upon the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: temporal separation and inhibition of dominant response (Diamond Goldman-Rakic, 1989). The A-not-B task requires subjects to relate two temporally separate events: hiding cue and searching action. With no delay between hiding and searching even 7.5-9 month old human infants and prefrontally operated monkeys can manage to choose the correct location B. However, even when a brief delay (2-5 seconds) is introduced, they start to fail in object searching. Therefore, the aspect of delay plays a crucial role in committing the A-not-B error. This disadvantage can be overcome when subjects are allowed to maintain visual fixation or body orientation towards the new location during the delay. A similar effect is created by a visible cue which consistently indicates the correct choice (for example a mark on one of the locations). Those two findings indicate a possible involvement of short and long-term memory in the process of committing the error. In the case of fixation on the correct choice, a representation of this choice does not have to be held in short-term memory, and in th e case of learning an association between a landmark and a reward, the long-term memory is activated, guiding reaching behaviour accordingly. This brings back the argument about the role of memory in explaining the A-not-B error. The second ability stemming from the prefrontal cortex, the inhibition of dominant response, is mostly related to the act of reaching for the hidden object. In the A-not-B task subjects are first repeatedly awarded for reaching to location A, which leads to strengthening of this response. However, such conditioned tendency to reach to A must be inhibited in the test trial if the subject is to succeed and reach correctly to new location B. The fact that subjects reach back to location A even when they appear to know where the object is hidden (by looking there) or should know where the object is placed (transparent covers with visible toys), adds validity to the notion that inhibiting the conditioned response is difficult and that memory might not play a maj or role in explaining the error (the problem is not simply forgetting location of an object). Even when the object is hidden, human infants and operated monkeys will often immediately correct themselves if their initial reach was incorrect. It appears therefore that subjects know the object is hidden in location B but still cannot inhibit the initial response of reaching to the previously rewarded location A. However, human infants often look in the direction of the correct hiding place, even when simultaneously reaching to the wrong one. It seems that the act of reaching itself might cause troubles, which relates to the next major explanation of the A-not-B error. Smith et al. (1999) advocated a change in theoretical debates on possible explanations of the A-not-B error. Their explanation focuses on performance and behaviour during the task, which is described as reaching to successive locations in visual space. Errors are made by returning to an original location when the goal location had changed. Reaching to a place consists of a series of ordered steps, beginning with cognition (perceiving the target, forming a goal) and ending with action (selecting a motor pattern, forming a trajectory of the reach). The proposition states that the A-not-B error is mainly a reaching error, emerging from a directional bias to location A created by previous looking and reaching, and because the visual input available to guide the reaching hand is insufficient to overcome the bias (similar covers close to each other, not fully developed reaching skills of 8 to 10 month old infants). Crucial to this hypothesis is the idea of a continuous interaction between looking, reaching, and memory of previous reaches. In other words, it is important that there are two similar potential reaching targets and that infants have a history of repeatedly reaching to one of the locations. Results from experiments by Smith et al. experiments indicated that goal-directed reaches of infants stem from complex interactions of visual input, direction of gaze, posture, and memory (therefore indicating strong context effects). Such a system is inclined towards perseveration since it creates the reach based on current visual input and memories of recent reaches. This bias will prevail whenever the new information input is highly similar to previous reach information or whenever the systems memory of previous reaches is strong. Such an effect could be described as a version of a previously analyzed information bias. These general processes of goal-directed reaching are not specific to a particular moment in development, which suggests that older children and even adults are prone to commit the A-not-B error if placed in the appropriate situation. For example, when no visual cues are given, like in the case of hiding objects in sand (Spencer et al., 1997; after: Smith et al., 1999). However, if these processes are not specific to a certain age, why then a decline in making the error is observed? Authors point to two developmental changes that can contribute to an answer: increasing infants ability to discriminate among visually similar locations, and increasing skill in reaching. Although Smith et al. state that there is no discrepancy between their results and data from investigations of the role of the prefrontal cortex, they do not agree with the explanation placing emphasis on inhibition failure in this region of the brain. In such a view, infants reach successfully to the correct location not because a dominant habit to reach to A was inhibited, but because the current visual information biasing the system in the B direction is stronger than the previously conditioned action towards A. Therefore, direction of the infants reach depends on internal and external dynamics shaping the goal-directed action (outside stimuli and previous experience). The goal of this review was to answer the questions of what the classic A-not-B error is, who makes it, and for what reasons. The answer to the first two is a straightforward one. In order to determine who makes the error, it is enough to administer the original procedure devised by Piaget to various subjects (with slight modifications if used with nonhuman animals). The question of why the error is committed has a more complex nature. A range of proposed explanations have been presented, along with an analysis of how valid these hypotheses are in light of existing empirical data. Due to limitations of space, the review has focused on presenting a summary of the main hypotheses: object permanence, memory deficits, information bias, immaturity of prefrontal cortex, and goal-oriented reaching. The two latter possess the largest explanatory power, as they incorporate or explain elements of other approaches. The most important difference between them is present in the definition of who c an commit the error. In the neuropsychological approach only subjects with immature or a damaged neocortex will make the error, whereas in the reaching approach this error is not so limited. Another main difference concerns the concept of inhibition. Described as a main element of the influence of the neocortex on choosing the right location, it is removed completely from the reaching approach. However, certain similarities are also present, since the neuropsychological hypothesis includes the aspect of programming a goal-oriented reach. Considering these characteristics together, as the best candidate for an explanation of the A-not-B task the immaturity of the neocortex will be chosen. It can provide sufficient explanation for why human infants with immature prefrontal cortex, prefrontally damaged monkeys, and dogs make the error. In the case of the latter, the inhibition process might play the major part. Dogs committed the error mostly in the communicative experimental conditio n, which might suggest that overcoming a bias created that way is too difficult, inhibition in the prefrontal cortex (which is often assumed to organize social behaviour) is too weak. Of possible importance is the domestication process, during which dogs were selected to respond to human communicative signals. In terms of Marrs levels of explanation (Humpreys et at., 1994), the prefrontal cortex could be described as planning behaviours in order to act appropriately in the world (computational level), by the use of inhibition processes (algorithmic level) on the neuronal networks (implementional level). Additional empirical data, obtained in order to validate the prefrontal cortex hypothesis, should include studies on infant rhesus monkeys and other infant species, as well as autistic human children (due to their lack of social skills which could be attributed to malfunctioning prefrontal cortex). A set of such data would allow comparisons with existing findings. Naturally, new rese arch might bring a change of focus in mechanisms underlying the A-not-B error, as the issue of perseverative errors is a complex one and requires further investigation.

Good Health Essay

â€Å"‘Good health implies the achievement of a dynamic balance between individuals or groups and their environment.'† (Better Health Commission 1986, cited in Carey, D., Perraton, G.; Weston, K. 2000: 3). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), ‘health’ can be defined as the absence of illnesses and a state of mental and social well-being (Carey et al. 2000:3). In other words, in order to maintain optimal health, it is imperative to have a well-balanced lifestyle which would include a nutritious diet as well as mental and social well-being. This essay shows that food is one of the many important factors amongst others when striving to maintain good health. This will be demonstrated by examining the three main aspects affecting an individual’s health, in the following order: diet, lifestyle and social fabric of family and society. Diet is considered as one of the most crucial factors contributing to an individual’s health. However, being aware of what constitutes a good diet as opposed to a poor diet is significant in maintaining optimal health in an individual. A diet that is well-balanced includes more fruit, vegetables, wholegrains and less fatty, salty or sugary foods. This would mean avoiding processed meals from takeaways and eating less refined foods. Several main reasons are commonly given for this. The first of this is a poor diet which has been noted to be a major cause of obesity. Obesity appears to be a major risk factor in many diseases such as colorectal cancer and coronary heart disease. In addition, in recent years the number of diet-related diseases has increased proportionately, and is now one of the major causes of death in most western countries including Australia. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (1987 cited in Australian Consumers’ Association 1991: 6), the most significant causes of mortality in 1986 were cancer and heart disease. An explanation for this could be the steady rise in obesity levels within Australia, with many people eating highly processed foods which are laden with calories (Australian Consumers’ Association 1991: 13). It is therefore critical to eat a nutritively healthy diet, in order to successfully maintain good health and weight. Furthermore, an example supporting the above contention is a study conducted by the Willcox team (2004: 2), which reveals that the Okinawans have one of  the highest rates of longevity and have considerably lower risk towards most diet-related diseases which tend to be more prevalent in the ‘affluent countries’ of the West. The most notable difference in the lifestyle of the Okinawans and the Australians is their food consumption, which is low in calories and rich in fibrous foods such as grains, vegetables and soy. The study also states that such a diet has allowed the Okinawans to refrain from extensive free-radical damage to their body, allowing them to live longer and healthier. This reinforces the idea that nutriment consisting of a variety of wholesome meals rather than processed foods is extremely essential in maintaining health that has a lower predisposition to diseases associated with diet. Another vital factor for maintaining optimal health is lifestyle. Grundy (n.d. cited in Cadzow 1996: 32) states that the continuing trend of deteriorating physical conditions is due to the sedentary lifestyles people tend to keep nowadays. It seems that in several modern cities like Australia, people often succumb to a physically inactive way of life because of the presence of numerous technological devices such as television for entertainment and elevators for convenience. For instance, it is quite common to find staff members in many workplaces choosing to send an e-mail to another office that could be just next door, then actually going down personally (Cadzow 1996:32). As a consequence, many people are not able to burn the amount of kilojoules they consume and are therefore rapidly gaining weight and becoming vulnerable to diet-related diseases, which can radically hinder their health. Comparatively, the centenarians of Okinawa have been noted to keep a particularly active lifestyle, even as they grow older, frequently taking part in strenuous activities such as fishing and farming as evidenced by research conducted by the Willcox team (n.d. cited in King Murdoch 2005: 24). As a result of their late retirements and continuous physical activities, the Okinawans seem to enjoy high rates of longevity and good health as compared to the populations of other countries (Mc Devitt 1999: 59). A further critical element characteristic of a healthy lifestyle is to refrain from smoking and limiting alcohol intake to a minimum to enhance  physical well-being (Melton 2001: 32). Hence, it is evident that staying healthy means keeping active. Various simple activities such as dancing, gardening, or brisk walking help to burn kilojoules whilst at the same time providing enjoyment. Such activities can easily be done by everyone to keep healthy. Finally, social development also plays a fundamental role in promoting and maintaining good health. Perry (1997: 26) notes that the elderly that live with their children and grandchildren gain several positive impacts on their social and mental well-being. These benefits include emotional and physical support from their children along with a close-knit social network, both of which are significant to maintaining good social condition as evidenced by World Health Organisation’s definition of ‘health’. Conversely, the elderly are able to give emotional support to their family members, as well as recommend healthy dietary choices in order to encourage better health which provides mutual benefits to all members of the family, and allows for a dynamic state of wellbeing. Another example highlighting the importance of culture in the maintenance of health is the Okinawan approach to life, which is full or enthusiasm and positive outlooks, which enables strong ‘social integration’. Further evidence in support of this contention includes studies conducted by several researchers in the West, which have revealed that easy going people with optimistic attitudes generally tend to outlive the pessimistic (Melton 2001: 32). In addition to keeping a positive outlook, coping with stress effectively is another important aspect in relation to mental condition. Meditation and spirituality, helps to reinforce the mental as well as social aspect of healthiness, thus increasing the ‘psychospiritual health’. It can therefore be summarised that being cheerful and engaging in social activities promotes better health. In conclusion, it is evident that maintaining optimal health requires consideration of a variety of factors including the type of food consumed, the sort of lifestyle maintained and the existence of an interactive environment. Since all these factors affect the balance of an individual’s health, it is very difficult to say which particular one is more essential than another. Rather, it is the combination of all three dynamic features  that enables the sustainment of a healthy life, without the incidence of diseases because health is a continual journey and the successful blend of physical, mental and social equilibrium is of utmost importance. As summarised by the Wilcox team, â€Å"[T]he issue is not how long we live, it is how well we live.

The Honest to Goodness Truth on College Essay Free Samples

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Mass Media on Education - 2275 Words

title page title page TOPIC Critically examine how mass media has impacted on the educational landscape in Jamaica. (Explore at least 4 points) Media is known to be the most powerful means of communication. The print media, electronic media and the Internet are all the subsets of mass media. But what is mass media? Media can be defined as all the means of communication that provide the public with news and entertainment along with advertising. The word mass, according to the Oxford Mini Dictionary, means ‘ a large quantity, heap or expanse’. Therefore the word mass media can be defined as the means of communication that reach large numbers of people in a short time. Mass-media offers information in different form such†¦show more content†¦Notice the spelling for water, bigger, dollars and phone. Another negative medium that affects the way we spell things here is the telephone. Texting has taken over our lives so much that one local telephone network gives away one hundred free texts per day. The words that are shortened in the texts though have impacted the way we learn to spell some words. Some of these words are ‘av’ for ‘have’, ‘di’ for ‘the’ and ‘ur’ for ‘you’re’. This can mislead children as to the correct spelling of these and other words. We are already faced with spelling and reading problems in the classroom without having to add to them. Although it is easy to assess and obtain an education online, many times the educational institutions are not accredited with the Jamaican government. Secondly I must look at how mass media affects Jamaican socially. Mass media has exposed us to more cultures and the ways of life of other people in other counties. We are now open to other religions, foods, food preparation, sexuality, dressing, hair style and ways of teaching, just to name a few. A few years ago you would only know about the Christian religion. Now there are no many religious groups that one would lose count if they were to be counted. Christians usually do not wear certain clothes, jewellery or even straighten their hair. All these have changed since globalization has stepped in through mass media. We are now open to eat foods from other countriesShow MoreRelatedMass Media, Legislation And Education Play Critical Roles Essay715 Words   |  3 PagesShahar Platt Group B Professor Rajan 3/3/15 Paper #3 Mass media, legislation and education play critical roles in times of conflict, deculturalization, and state-sponsored mass violence against civilians. During the Rwandan Genocide of 1994, members of Hutu power founded the radio station, RTLM, which encouraged violence against the rival Tutsi minority and had a significant impact on participation in killings by both militia groups and ordinary civilians. By spreading propaganda via broadcasts,Read MoreUnderstanding Different Approaches Of Health Education1009 Words   |  5 PagesHealth education In this report I am going to explain three different Approaches that can be used to promote Health Education these three approaches are The role of Mass media, Social marketing and The Community development approach I am also going to explain information about what the approaches are and what the benefits and limitations of each approach is. Mass Media What is Mass media? The first approach I am writing about is how the role of mass media can be used in health education. MassRead More The Social Benefits of Mass Communication Essay1729 Words   |  7 PagesBenefits of Mass Communication Mass communications, like anything for humans, has its advantages and disadvantages, but mass media has far more advantages to offer the world. 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With the media flo oding negative influence, it builds up to having thisRead MoreAdolf Hitler: Propaganda And The World War At 1937-1945.1364 Words   |  6 Pagespropaganda and thrived by propaganda, the Nazi empire under Adolf Hitler was one of the strongest forces in the Second World War between 1937 and 1945. Defined by propaganda, the Nazi Party under the leadership of Hitler dictated the economy, politics, education and military based on their ability to communicate, convince and manipulate masses of people based on their wishes. The perfection on the use of propaganda by Adolf Hitler was apparent in the capacity of the Nazi Party to convince the Germans toRead MoreThe Influences Of Mass Media On Society864 Words   |  4 PagesThe Influences of Mass Media on Society For the greater majority of the American society, the presence of mass media is a normal part of everyday lives. 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The necessity and the relevancy of mass media becomes more prominent and urgent in the 21st century world, as the 21st century landscape is exceptionally more mediated than in previous eras of human history. It behooves producers, distributors, and consumers of mass media to understand and consider the interplay between power and discourse within the context of mass media. Where isRead MoreAdvantages of mass media1332 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Do the advantages of Mass Media outweigh the disadvantages? Mass media refers collectively to all the media technologies that are intended to reach a large audience via mass communication. There are various forms of mass media such as radio, television, movies, magazines, newspapers and the World Wide Web. Mass Media enjoys a very prominent role in our lives and thus, it is believed to influence our society. There are positive and negative effects of mass media on our society. This essay will

Laissez Faire Vs. State Intervention - 1467 Words

1800s: Laissez-faire vs. State Intervention What does, exactly, ‘laissez-faire’ mean? According to the Oxford dictionary, this French term means literally ‘allow to do’, however, in nineteenth century Britain, this word was used to define a new policy of non-intervention in free market affairs by governments, in order to allow things to follow their own course without any external help, as suggested from some of the most famous economists of the era, as Adam Smith, his followers Thomas Robert Malthus and David Ricardo, or Samuel Smiles. These economists believed in a ‘hands-off approach’ of self-help, as it can be seen from their written works. For example, Samuel Smiles (1859) wrote: â€Å"Even the best institutions can give a man no active help. Perhaps, most they can do is, to leave him free to develop himself and improve his individual condition.† Basically, they strongly believed in the idea of the ‘self-made man’, capable of becoming successful by his own efforts. Anyhow, this belief that the interest of an individual would have led, in the end, to benefits for both the economy and the society, as highlighted by Smith (1776), strongly disagreed with the living conditions of the nineteenth century British society’s situation. In fact, even though this century brought various improvements to the world, with a period of huge innovation known as ‘Industrialisation’, there was a huge gap between social classes, given that any change was made available for poor p eople, thatShow MoreRelatedEconomic Growth in the Late 19th Century Essay680 Words   |  3 PagesFrom the year 1865 to 1900 the United States government was attributed to following the standards of laissez-faire, an economic axiom in opposition of governmental moderation of or meddling in commerce beyond the merest essential for a free-enterprise organization to function according to its own economic regulations. 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Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics Free Essays

string(53) " dealing with the business of administering justice\." ————————————————- Politics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the political magazine, see  The Politic. For other uses, see  Politics (disambiguation). Politics  (from  Greek  politikos  Ã¢â‚¬Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†) is the  art  or  science  of influencing people on a civic, or individual level, when there are more than 2 people involved. We will write a custom essay sample on Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics or any similar topic only for you Order Now Modern political discourse focuses on democracy and the relationship between people and politics. It is thought of as the way we â€Å"choose government officials and make decisions about public policy†. [1] * | ———————————————— [edit]Etymology European Parliament The word  politics  comes from the  Greek  word   (politika), modeled on  Aristotle’s â€Å"affairs of the city†, the name of his book on governing and governments, which was rendered in English in the mid-15th century as Latinized â€Å"Polettiques†. [2]  Thus it became â€Å"politics† in  Middle English  c. 1520s (see the  Concise Oxford Dictionary). The singular  politic  first attested in English 1430 and comes from  Middle French  politique, in turn from  Latin  politicus,[3]  which is the  latinisation  of the Greek politikos), meanin g amongst others â€Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†, â€Å"civil†, â€Å"civic†, â€Å"belonging to the state†,[4]  in turn from (polites), â€Å"citizen†[5]  and that from (polis), â€Å"city†. [6] ————————————————- [edit]History The history of politics is reflected in the origin and development, and economics of the institutions of  government. [edit]The state Main article:  State (polity) Sun Tzu The origin of the  state  is to be found in the development of the  art of warfare. Historically speaking, all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. [7] Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that ofkingship  stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the â€Å"divine right of kings†. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria[8]  to the 21st Century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. The king often, even in  absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a  Council  without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power,  constitutional monarchies  emerged, which may be considered the germ of  constitutional government. [citation needed]  Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:[citation needed] 1. Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. 2. Preserving the traditions of the social order. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. 4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single individual such as the king. The greatest of the king’s subordinates, the  earls,  archdukes  and  dukes  in England and Scotland, the  dukes  and  counts  in the Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts  tribute. One of the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of  military service  and the establishment of  lordships  by the king to satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers. [9] [edit]The state and property Property  is the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to public trust. Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed property. The State began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it came  inheritance. With landed property came rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times, the â€Å"lord of the land† of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit. Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the State – the State would use the instrument of  confiscation  for the first time to satisfy a debt – and the Church – the Church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land – were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that today, the village has become the ideal of the  individualist, a place in which every man â€Å"does what he wills with his own. † The State has been the most important factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or private. 10] [edit]The state and the justice system As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned with the  allegiance  of its subjects viewing disloyalty and  espionage  as well as other sorts of  conspiracies  as detrimental to its national security. Thus arises the law of  treason. Criminal acts in general, breaking the peac e and treason make up the whole, or at least part of  criminal law  enforced by the State as distinguished from  the law enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf of private individuals. State justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept written records of their proceedings. The  trial by jury  was adopted by the Royal Courts, securing it’s popularity and making it a bulwark of liberty. By the time of the  Protestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice. You read "Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics" in category "Papers" [11] [edit]The state The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies. That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the  Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in the  Gentile  cities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal stage of society, it was  custom  or  observance  sanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors. citation needed] The state of affairs which existed in the 10th century, when every town had its own laws and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by three great agencies that helped to create the mo dern system of law and legislation:[citation needed] 1. Records:  From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what are called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the patriarchal is becoming the State. They are due almost universally to one cause: the desire of the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written text can change by addition with every new edition. 2. Law Courts:  By taking some general rule which seemed to be common to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every ase toquestions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact; and being a purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass: the province of the judge and the province of the jury. 3. Fictions:  Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will accept a change in the form of a fiction while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open. British parliament Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the faster method of  political representation  is adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprang  Parliament  all over Europe around the end of the 12th century but not entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy. The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule of  celibacy  and cut themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had already paid it to the  Pope. Since the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament. The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come. [citation needed] The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly because it meant  taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist. The notion that parliaments were the result of a democratic movement cannot be supported by historical facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that an institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to contribute with large sums of money began to  petition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money. However, there were two kinds of petitions, one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted or  legislation  originated. The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced by the State. citation needed] In the early days of political representation, the  majority  did not necessarily carry the day and there was very little need for contested  elections  but by the beginning of the 15th century, a seat in Parliament was something to be cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of the majority principle is also responsible for another institution of modern times: the  party system. The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation interesting a large number of people in politics; it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government. citation needed] These three institutions: political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of modern political machinery; they are applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in themselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose. [12] [edit]The state and the executive system The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government. In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government. [citation needed] The  German Chancellery(Bundeskanzleramt) in  Berlin Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass of people. Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the direction of policy making. One of the basic functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means ofcommunication. Historically, the â€Å"king’s highway† was laid down and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to  commerce. In almost all countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and special freedoms such as those delineated in the  First Amendment to the United States Constitution  are rather limited. The State’s original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to  police  administration which is a branch of the dispensation of  Justice  but on its preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work. In thecurfew, the State shows early in history the importance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising of  revenue. It was then useful to the State to establish a  standard  of  weights and measures  so that value could be generally accepted and finally the State acquired a  monopoly  of  coinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, when  the Black Plague  killed around half of the European population. citation needed] The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the policy until  Adam Smith’s  The Wealth of Nations  was published promoting a strong public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the State relief of the  indigent. The State, of course, did not create po verty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with t such as the village, the church and the  guilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed that  communism  was widespread in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as the  colonies  of the  British Empire, the State has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism. citation needed] Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general State aid. [citation needed] Political representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular. There are no hard and fast rules to limit State administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where â€Å"universal suffrage† prevails, the fact remains that an extension of State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good. Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the fallacy that State officials must necessarily prove more effective in their action than  private enterprise. Herein lies the basic difference between  Public  and  Business Administration; the first deals with the  public weal  while the second deals basically in  profit  but both require a great deal of  education  and  ethical conduct  to avoid the mishaps inherent in the relationship not only relating to  business  and  labour  but also the State and the people administrating its  government. 13] [edit]The varieties of political experience The swearing of the oath of ratification of the treaty of Munster in 1648  (1648) by  Gerard ter Borch. According to Aristotle, States are classified into  monarchies,  aristocracies,  timocracies,  democracies,  oligarchies, and  tyrannies. Due to an increase in knowledge of the history of politics, this classificat ion has been abandoned. Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all circumstances, for all people and in all ways. As an institution created by the human nature togovern society, it is vulnerable to  abuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utillises, thus posing that there is no ‘best’ form of government. All States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State. All the  Great Powers  of the modern world rule on the principle of  sovereignty. Sovereign power may be vested on an individual as in an  autocratic government  or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government. Constitutions  are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the Legislative branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential. England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the  Civil War  but after the  Restoration  abandoned them to be taken up later by the  American Colonies  after their  emancipation  and then  France  after the  Revolution  and the rest of Europe including the European colonies. [citation needed] There are two forms of government, one a strong central government as in France and the other a local government such as the ancient divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic. These two forms helped to shape the  federal government, first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century,  Australia. The Federal States introduced the new principle of agreement or  contract. Compared to a  federation, a  confederation’s singular weakness is that it lacks  judicial power. [citation needed]  In the  American Civil War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State could  secede  from the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches. citation needed] According to professor  A. V. Dicey  in  An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential features of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent of both the executive and legislative branches. 14] [edit]Political party Main article:  political party A  political party  is a  political organization  that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within  government, usually by participating in  electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed  ideology  or vision bolstered by a written  platform  with specific goals, forming a  coalition  among disparate interests. [citation needed] [edit]World politics The  United Nations  building in  New York City The 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of the  Third Reich  but also the rise and fall of  communism. The development of the  Atomic bomb  gave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in  World War II. Later, the development of the  Hydrogen bombbecame the ultimate weapon of mass destruction. The  United Nations  has served as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. â€Å"The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends. [15]  Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, â€Å"nuclear blackmail† comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty. [16]  On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during the October  Cuban missile crisis  from the implementation of  U. S. vs  U. S. S. R. nucl ear blackmail policy. ————————————————- [edit]As an academic discipline Political science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of  power. [17]  Political scientist  Harold Lasswell  defined politics as â€Å"who gets what, when, and how†. [18]  Related areas of study include  political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour,  political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, and  public administration, which examines the practices of governance. citation needed]  The philosopher  Charles Blattberg, who has defined politics as â€Å"responding to conflict with dialogue,† offers an account which distinguishes political philosophies from political ideologies. [19] The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science at  Columbia University, first occupied by Prussian emigre  Francis Lieber  in 18 57. [20] ————————————————- [edit]Spectra Political views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the Inglehart–Welzel Cultural Map of the World based on the  World Values Survey. Main article:  Political spectrum Several different  political spectrums  have been proposed. [edit]Left-right politics Main article:  Left–right politics Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide politics into  left wing  and  right wing  politics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left. This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used by  Aristotle  or  Hobbes, for instance), and dates from theFrench Revolution  era, when those members of the  National Assembly  who supported the  republic, the common people and a  secular society  sat on the left and supporters of the  monarchy,  aristocratic  privilege and the Church sat on the right. [21] The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of the  Communist Manifesto  by  Karl Marx  and  Frederick Engels  in 1848. The  Manifesto  suggested a course of action for a  proletarian  revolution to overthrow thebourgeois  society and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a  classless  and  stateless  society. [citation needed] The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values  tradition  and  social stratification  while the left wing often values  reform  and  egalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as with  social democracy  or  regulated capitalism. 22] According to  Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. [23] So me ideologies, notably  Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, â€Å"In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles. â€Å"[24]  Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include  Fascist  Terza Posizioneeconomic politics in Italy,  Gaullism  in France,  Peronism  in Argentina, and  National Action Politics  in Mexico. [citation needed] [edit]Authoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianism  and  libertarianism  refer to the amount of individual  freedom  each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where â€Å"individual  rights  and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities†,[25]  while libertarians generally oppose the  state  and hold theindividual  as  sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are  anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of  Political parties  and of  other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically,  totalitarians  who support state control over all aspects of  society. citation needed] For instance,  classical liberalism  (also known as  laissez-faire  liberalism,[26]  or, in much of the world, simply  liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and  limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual  property rights,  free markets,  natural rights, the protection of  civil liberties, constitutional limitation of governme nt, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of  John Locke,  Adam Smith,  David Hume,  David Ricardo,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu  and others. According to the libertarian  Institute for Humane Studies, â€Å"the libertarian, or ‘classical liberal,’ perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by ‘as much liberty as possible’ and ‘as little government as necessary. ‘†[27]  For anarchist political philosopher  L. Susan Brown  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Liberalism and  anarchism  are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual  freedom  yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism’s competitive property relations. [28] ————————————————- [edit]Political corruption Main article:  Political corruption â€Å"| Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. | †| à ‚  | —  William Pitt the Elder[29]| | Political corruption  is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as  repression  of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. [citation needed] Forms of corruption vary, but include  bribery,  extortion,  cronyism,  nepotism,  patronage,  graft, and  embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate  criminal enterprise  such as  drug trafficking,  money laundering, and  trafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. citation needed]  The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. [citation needed] Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. [30]  A state of unrestrained How to cite Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics, Papers

Discussion on Care Plan for Cholecystis

Question: Write about theDiscussion on Care Plan for Cholecystis. Answer: The importance of nursing assessment in the treatment process is concerned with the collection of information about the health abnormalities that the patient is undergoing and arrives at a coping strategy based on their present health conditions that will support their medical restriction at large. As the responsibility for the optimal care for the patients lies upon the nursing professionals they often need to make challenging clinical judgments regarding the safety and wellbeing of the patient under their care (Estes et al., 2015). Clinical reasoning cycle provides the best measure for the nurses to make the most logical and reasonable decisions that helps in constructing a smooth treatment pathway and also aids in orchestrating an optimal care plan. This essay will attempt to formulate a detailed care pathway discussing about cholecystis and different aspects associated with its treatment talking the help of a clinical reasoning cycle. Clinical reasoning cycle can be described as a series of strategically organized step by step actions that help in eliciting important information about the situational aspects of the patent under consideration, the signs and symptoms he or she is exhibiting and determine the cause of those abnormalities and arrive at the best treatment strategy that will be supportive of the patients current situation. Clinical reasoning cycle allows the health care professionals to elicit information, process the information and arrive at a clinical judgment by the means of linking theory with practice (Levett-Jones Hoffman, 2013). As Banning in his article has stated, a sustainable and legit health care practice should focus on assimilation, analysis and differentiation of the evidences associated with health care, and the elements of clinical reasoning cycle can serve as a potent tool that can help the health care professional achieve that goal in a scientific and logical manner (Levett-Jones H offman, 2013). In this case study, the patient under consideration, Mr. Kasim Al-Mutar is a middle aged man who came to the emergency ward with a complicated case of cholecystis. The treatment procedure according to the steps of clinical reasoning cycle starts with the considering the patients situation (Giger, 2014). In this case the patient is a 49 year old man suffering with right upper quadrant abdominal pain, fever, and vomiting. All these symptoms are indicative of a cholecystis which is considered to be a highly medical concern in this age specifically for men. However studies suggest that females are at more risk to calculous cholecystis in comparison to the males. However, regardless of the gender the risk for cholecystis has been known to increase with growing age (Gutt et al., 2013). The next step to clinical reasoning is to collect the information that can be o relevance to the present medical conditions of the patient. In this particular step the nursing professional is expected to elicit information about the past medical history of the patient, lifestyle and eating habits, vital signs and symptoms associated with the health care concern that the patient is experiencing (Gutt et al., 2013). Nursing handover can offer viable elements for this long list, the handover for the patient under consideration revealed that the heart rate for the patent had been 126 and the blood pressure ranged within 100/45. However the body temperature for the patient had been 38.8 F and had been in excruciating pain in the right upper quadrant of his abdomen. The general appearance of the patient was pale and he also had dry mucous membrane and had been demanding water frequently due to dry throat. He had given his pain severity a score of 7 out of 10 which significantly high and th e patient us need of a surgery (McGillicuddy et al., 2012). The next step to clnical reasoning cycle is evaluating the information assimilated about the patient and comparing them to theoretical clinical knowledge to gain a better understanding about the present condition of the patient. Cholecystis is considered to be common gall bladder disease that causes inflammation in the gall bladder mostly due to occurrence of gall stones that causes bile to trap in the gall bladder and causes inflammation and symptoms like pain in the right upper quadrant, vomiting and fever (Potter et al., 2013). Now gall bladder is a small pear shaped sac that stores digestive bile produced by the liver, now this digestive bile assists in the breaking down of food rich in fats and also helps in the absorption of certain vitamins. Now in case of a cholecystic or inflamed gall bladder the cystic duct for is blocked by gall stones mostly which traps the bile. This abnormality of the gall bladder is associated with high morbidity rates according to explorative research studies and the patient needs to be handled very delicately (Potter et al., 2013). The major symptom associated with cholecystis is the right upper quadrant pain that is the result of biliary colic due to the trapped bile near the blocked cystic duct. This phenomenon generally occurs after consumption of fatty or greasy food that is harder to be digested without the digestive bile. This phenomenon also causes symptoms like nausea and can cause the patient to feel irresistible urges to vomit post consumption of greasy heavy food. Apart from that fever is considered to be a very common symptom of cholecystis and a cholecystic gall bladder can be tender to touch in most cases due to the inflammation (Riall et al., 2010). However in this the patent is pale in appearance and is having frequent dry throat syndrome and is having frequent urges to drink water. It has to be considering that in most cases the elder patients succumb to dehydration post admission to the health care facility which further complicates their condition. Hence care should be taken to be taken to en sure that the patient dose not develop dehydration at any circumstances as that will increase his chances to develop jaundice (Schmidt et al., 2011). The next step to clinical reasoning cycle, is the identification of the issues that the patients is having and conducting different health assessments to arrive at a definite conclusion about the treatment plan. In this case the patent is suffering from acute pain in the upper right quadrant along with vomiting and fever. The health assessments that the patient needs to be undergone should start with a competitive blood count test as a marker of inflammation (Schmidt et al., 2011). Increased white blood cell count and increased bilirubin levels will indicate at bile congestion in the gall bladder and resultant inflammation. Depending on the positive results of this test the radio imaging of the right upper quadrant will confirm the presence of inflammation of the gall bladder. Generally these tests are enough for a medical practitioner to diagnose cholecystis however the symptom for cholecystis can be easily confused with other diseases like perforated peptic ulcer, kidney stones, co litis or pancreatitis, hence care should be taken to ensure that the assessments are being performed accurately (White, Duncan Baumle, 2012). Considering the present health conditions of the patient, he will require the service of a certified medical practitioner, abdominal specialist, nursing professionals, dietician and a community service worker. The patient will need to undergo a surgical removal of the gall bladder or a laparoscopic surgery of the gall bladder to remove in case there are stones that is causing the blockage of the cystic duct (White, Duncan Baumle, 2012). The patient is under extreme pain due to biliary colic hence administered of analgesia will aid in relieving the pain that is going through. Prior to the surgery the patent needs to be educated properly about the surgery and how that is going to help him with his present medical concerns. Communication is an elemental part of a treatment procedure that ensures that there is a mutually respectful relationship between the patient and the health care professional caring for him. It will allow the patent to be comfortable enough to share his grievances a nd preferences to the nurse and will involve him in the treatment procedure which is known to increase the recovery chances significantly. Apart from that the vital signs of the patent should be diligently monitored before and after the surgery by the nursing professional (Yokoe et al., 2013). The nutritional requirement of the patient should be addressed with liquid light diet before and after the surgery that is rich in antioxidants that will aid in his speedy recovery. Apart from that the patient should be kept well hydrated and comfortable during his stay in the health care facility. Lastly the patient should be offered community physical aid therapy and regular home visits from community service nursing professionals to help him understand the precautionary measures to take and the lifestyle changes he needed to bring forth in his life to ensure that he attains full recovery (Yokoe et al., 2013). On a concluding note it can be said that gall bladder inflammations are considered a very common health concern for a reason, the deteriorating life style habits and the paramount stress that the mass are under only aids the purpose of more health care complications. With the chasing lifestyle that we have nowadays the health problems are only going to escalate, the health care industry needs to continue to advance itself with concepts like clinical reasoning cycle top ensure that the dynamic needs of the patients can be met. References: Estes, Calleja, Theobald, Harvey (2015).Health Assessment Physical Examination(2nd ed.). Australian New Zealand: Cengage Giger, J. N. (2014).Transcultural nursing: Assessment and intervention. Elsevier Health Sciences. Gutt, C. N., Encke, J., Kninger, J., Harnoss, J. C., Weigand, K., Kipfmller, K., ... Klar, E. (2013). Acute cholecystitis: early versus delayed cholecystectomy, a multicenter randomized trial (ACDC study, NCT00447304).Annals of surgery,258(3), 385-393. Levett-Jones, T. Hoffman, K. (2013). Clinical reasoning: What it is and why it matters. In: T. LevettJones (Ed.). Clinical Reasoning: Learning to think like a nurse. Frenchs Forest: Pearson McGillicuddy, E. A., Schuster, K. M., Barre, K., Suarez, L., Hall, M. R., Kaml, G. J., ... Longo, W. E. (2012). Non?operative management of acute cholecystitis in the elderly.British Journal of Surgery,99(9), 1254-1261. Potter, P. A., Perry, A. G., Stockert, P., Hall, A. (2013).Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. Riall, T. S., Zhang, D., Townsend, C. M., Kuo, Y. F., Goodwin, J. S. (2010). Failure to perform cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis in elderly patients is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and cost.Journal of the American College of Surgeons,210(5), 668-677. Schmidt, M., Sndenaa, K., Vetrhus, M., Berhane, T., Eide, G. E. (2011). Long-term follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of observation versus surgery for acute cholecystitis: non-operative management is an option in some patients.Scandinavian journal of gastroenterology,46(10), 1257-1262. White, L., Duncan, G., Baumle, W. (2012).Medical surgical nursing: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Yokoe, M., Takada, T., Strasberg, S. M., Solomkin, J. S., Mayumi, T., Gomi, H., ... Gabata, T. (2013). TG13 diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholecystitis (with videos).Journal of hepato-biliary-pancreatic sciences,20(1), 35-46.